Rubén Dario (1867-1916)
"El cisne" funciona como un palimpsesto en Darío. Evoca un pasado clásico para dotarlo de belleza sensual en su presente.
"EL CISNE", Prosas Profanas y otros poemas (1896)
Á Ch. Del Gouffre.
. . . .Fué en una hora divina para el género humano.
El Cisne antes cantaba sólo para morir.
Cuando se oyó el acento del Cisne wagneriano
Fué en medio de una aurora, fué para revivir.
.
. . . .Sobre las tempestades del humano oceano
Se oye el canto del Cisne; no se cesa de oir,
Dominando el martillo del viejo Thor germano
Ó las trompas que cantan la espada de Argantir.
.
. . . .¡Oh Cisne! ¡Oh sacro pájaro! Si antes la blanca Helena
Del huevo azul de Leda brotó de gracia llena,
Siendo de la Hermosura la princesa inmortal,
.
. . . .Bajo tus blancas alas la nueva Poesía
Concibe en una gloria de luz y de harmonía
La Helena eterna y pura que encarna el ideal.
Tuesday, November 29, 2011
Tuesday, November 22, 2011
"Modernidad" vs. "modernismo"
I. Modernismo
"Modernidad" vs. "modernismo"
La modernidad es un marco temporal social, filosófico, y económico que intenta entender la sociedad occidental a partir de la revolución industrial (circa siglos XVIII-XIX). El modernismo es un movimiento estético y artístico en occidente paralelo a la modernidad (siglos XIX-XX y ss.).
Se sostiene que Baudelaire lanza este concepto en su artículo “Le peintre de la vie moderne” (El pintor de la vida moderna), publicado en 1863, donde se le atribuye a lo moderno la cualidad de bello, de poético y de eterno. Lo relaciona estrechamente con la moda y a los impulsos del comportamiento y los modales. Incluso se llego a decir que “quien estudiaba mucho lo antiguo perdía la memoria del presente”.
La hegemonía de las letras francesas, sin embargo, han solapado la estética de la modernidad hispanoamericana que ahora estudiamos en clase. Nuestra primera muestra de la estética de la modernidad hispanoamericana se encuentra en la obra de José Martí.
Precursores: José Martí (1853—1895)
De Versos Sencillos (1891) interpretado por Sara Gonzáles
II. Memoria cultural y cultura popular: Nacionalismos y "libertad"
Cultura visual: Muestras y contrastes
Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868), "Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way [Westward Ho!]", mural, 1861)
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" (1907).
Discuta los temas más sobresalientes de la literatura hispanoamericana desde el período colonial hasta el "barroco americano".
"Modernidad" vs. "modernismo"
La modernidad es un marco temporal social, filosófico, y económico que intenta entender la sociedad occidental a partir de la revolución industrial (circa siglos XVIII-XIX). El modernismo es un movimiento estético y artístico en occidente paralelo a la modernidad (siglos XIX-XX y ss.).
Se sostiene que Baudelaire lanza este concepto en su artículo “Le peintre de la vie moderne” (El pintor de la vida moderna), publicado en 1863, donde se le atribuye a lo moderno la cualidad de bello, de poético y de eterno. Lo relaciona estrechamente con la moda y a los impulsos del comportamiento y los modales. Incluso se llego a decir que “quien estudiaba mucho lo antiguo perdía la memoria del presente”.
La hegemonía de las letras francesas, sin embargo, han solapado la estética de la modernidad hispanoamericana que ahora estudiamos en clase. Nuestra primera muestra de la estética de la modernidad hispanoamericana se encuentra en la obra de José Martí.
Precursores: José Martí (1853—1895)
De Versos Sencillos (1891) interpretado por Sara Gonzáles
II. Memoria cultural y cultura popular: Nacionalismos y "libertad"
Cultura visual: Muestras y contrastes
Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868), "Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way [Westward Ho!]", mural, 1861)
![Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way [Westward Ho!]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Westward_the_Course_of_Empire.jpg){kind=link}
Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon" (1907).
Discuta los temas más sobresalientes de la literatura hispanoamericana desde el período colonial hasta el "barroco americano".
Thursday, November 17, 2011
María Amparo Ruíz de Burton, The Squatter and the Don (1885)
I. CONCEPTOS:
Modernidad
Memoria Cultural
Amnesia Cultural
"Rememoria", Rememoriar
LEGADOS DE OLVIDO:
El Llanero Solitario ("Enter The Lone Ranger", 9/15/1949)
Cultura Popular
Discriminación
Border Patrol
II. Modernismo
"Modernismo" vs. "modernidad"
Precursores: José Martí (1853—1895)
De Versos Sencillos interpretado por Sara Gonzáles
Memoria cultural y cultura popular: Nacionalismos y "libertad"
Modernidad
Memoria Cultural
Amnesia Cultural
"Rememoria", Rememoriar
LEGADOS DE OLVIDO:
El Llanero Solitario ("Enter The Lone Ranger", 9/15/1949)
Cultura Popular
Discriminación
Border Patrol
II. Modernismo
"Modernismo" vs. "modernidad"
Precursores: José Martí (1853—1895)
De Versos Sencillos interpretado por Sara Gonzáles
Memoria cultural y cultura popular: Nacionalismos y "libertad"
Thursday, November 10, 2011
María Amparo Ruíz de Burton, The Squatter and the Don (1885)
La literatura hispanoamericana se ha encontrado no sólo en hispanoamérica sino en en los Estados Unidos también. La clase hoy requiere una reconsideración de lo que consideramos como la literatura nacional de los Estados Unidos. Replantearnos la pregunta requiere repensar los conceptos de la "herencia cultural" y la "ciudadanía cultural".
Prelectura. Antes de leer las selecciones del Squatter and the Don identifiquen:
La Guerra entre Estados Unidos y México (“US-Mexican War). ¿Qué fue? ¿En qué reside su importancia?
Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo
María Amparo Ruíz de Burton. ¿Quién fue? ¿En qué reside su importancia?
Trasfondo y contexto histórico
Repaso de Sab:
Temas para discutir en grupos. Favor de dar ejemplos de la novela.
Grupo I.
El casamiento entre Enrique y Carlota. ¿Qué representa?
Discuta las muertes en la novela. ¿Qué representan las muertes?
Grupo II.
Discuta “la escritura “femenina” y su relación a la novela.
Discuta el tema del “amor” en la novela.
Grupo II.
Discuta el tema del la esclavitud
Discuta el tema transformación económica de Cuba
Prelectura. Antes de leer las selecciones del Squatter and the Don identifiquen:
La Guerra entre Estados Unidos y México (“US-Mexican War). ¿Qué fue? ¿En qué reside su importancia?
Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo
María Amparo Ruíz de Burton. ¿Quién fue? ¿En qué reside su importancia?
Trasfondo y contexto histórico
Repaso de Sab:
Temas para discutir en grupos. Favor de dar ejemplos de la novela.
Grupo I.
El casamiento entre Enrique y Carlota. ¿Qué representa?
Discuta las muertes en la novela. ¿Qué representan las muertes?
Grupo II.
Discuta “la escritura “femenina” y su relación a la novela.
Discuta el tema del “amor” en la novela.
Grupo II.
Discuta el tema del la esclavitud
Discuta el tema transformación económica de Cuba
Tuesday, November 8, 2011
Sab
Sab de Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda y la estética de los desamores: El caso de Charlotte Temple
LAIS 331
Presentaciones informales.
I. Temas
En Sab hay dos tipos de economías que se oponen. Describa estas dos y explique su importancia para la novela. Señale, ¿qué dice esto sobre el futuro de Cuba en la novela si una de estas economías triunfa sobre la otra?
Es caso del barco inglés Zong (1781) representa un cambio respecto al cuerpo humano bajo la esclavitud. Discuta el caso en relación a los Otway. ¿Qué semejanzas y puntos de contacto se encuentran entre el caso, la economía especulativa que introduce, y su punto de origen?
II. Análisis
Cap. VII.
¿Qué semejanzas hay entre la lotería y el amor?
Cap. VIII.
¿Qué le dice Sab a Enrique Otway sobre la fortuna de Don Carlos Bellavista?
¿Cómo se transforman los sentimientos de Enrique sobre Carlota en este capítulo?
¿Qué propósito tiene la canción de Carlota?
Cap. IX
La escritura “femenina”. ¿Cómo se describen las preparaciones para el viaje a Cubitas?
¿Cómo se manifiesta el tema sobrenatural en este capítulo?
¿Qué historia representa Martina?
¿Cómo se describe la conquista en este capítulo?
Cap. X
¿Qué encuentran en las cuevas de Cubitas
¿Cómo aparece la “fisonomía” en este capitulo?
¿Quién es Luis y que representa?
III. Señale por lo menos dos metáforas que se usan en la narración para describir a:
Sab, Carlota, y Enrique.
LAIS 331
Presentaciones informales.
I. Temas
En Sab hay dos tipos de economías que se oponen. Describa estas dos y explique su importancia para la novela. Señale, ¿qué dice esto sobre el futuro de Cuba en la novela si una de estas economías triunfa sobre la otra?
Es caso del barco inglés Zong (1781) representa un cambio respecto al cuerpo humano bajo la esclavitud. Discuta el caso en relación a los Otway. ¿Qué semejanzas y puntos de contacto se encuentran entre el caso, la economía especulativa que introduce, y su punto de origen?
II. Análisis
Cap. VII.
¿Qué semejanzas hay entre la lotería y el amor?
Cap. VIII.
¿Qué le dice Sab a Enrique Otway sobre la fortuna de Don Carlos Bellavista?
¿Cómo se transforman los sentimientos de Enrique sobre Carlota en este capítulo?
¿Qué propósito tiene la canción de Carlota?
Cap. IX
La escritura “femenina”. ¿Cómo se describen las preparaciones para el viaje a Cubitas?
¿Cómo se manifiesta el tema sobrenatural en este capítulo?
¿Qué historia representa Martina?
¿Cómo se describe la conquista en este capítulo?
Cap. X
¿Qué encuentran en las cuevas de Cubitas
¿Cómo aparece la “fisonomía” en este capitulo?
¿Quién es Luis y que representa?
III. Señale por lo menos dos metáforas que se usan en la narración para describir a:
Sab, Carlota, y Enrique.
Wednesday, November 2, 2011
Pecunia americana: Esclavitud y el caso Zong
I. Contextos: La Masacre del ZongEl Zong era una barco negrero inglés de Liverpool que salió de las costas africanas con un cargamento de esclavos rumbo a Jamaica el 6 de septiembre de 1781. La muerte de muchos esclavos encadenados a causa de enfermedad causó que el capitán determinara que si los esclavos morían por enfermedad, la pérdida sería para los propietarios del barco, pero que si con algún pretexto relacionado con la "seguridad de la tripulación" podían justificar el arrojar vivos al agua a los esclavos, entonces el responsable sería la Compañía de Seguros.
El capitán y su tripulación tiró a los esclavos restantes al mar para reclamar su "pérdida" con la compañía de seguros y recuperar la inversión de los dueños que traficaban los cuerpos de los esclavos.
Al regresar a Liverpool, los propietarios del barco reclamaron a la Compañía de Seguros 30 libras esterlinas por cada uno de los 133 esclavos que habían arrojado al mar. El valor del cuerpo del esclavo, reducido a 30 libras esterlinas, refleja el comienzo en Occidente de la inversión en la pecunia especulativa (speculative capital investments) contra el mercado de capital material mercantil de dónde surge.
El cuadro "The Slave Ship" (1840), de J.W. Turner intentó captar el acontecimiento en la plástica. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)II. Sab: Contextos (leer hasta página 155 para el 3 de noviembre)
1811 España logra abolir la esclavitud
1868 Abolición de esclavitud en Cuba
Tuesday, November 1, 2011
El color del nacionalismo: Pecunia americana en Sab de Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda
La frenología (del griego: fren, "mente"; y logos, "conocimiento") es una teoría del siglo XIX que afirmaba la posible determinación del carácter y los rasgos de la personalidad, así como las tendencias criminales, basándose en la forma del cráneo, cabeza y facciones. Desarrollada inicialmente por el neuroanatomista alemán Franz Joseph Gall y extremadamente popular durante el siglo XIX entre 1810 hasta 1840; hoy en día es considerada una pseudociencia. Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda Sab pgs. 97-126
La fisonomía.
¿Cómo de describen los rostros de Sab, Enrique Otway y Teresa?
¿Qué nos dicen la lectura de los rostros en Sab?
Discuta la tensión alrededor del casamiento de Carlota con Enrique. Los Otway son inversionistas especulativos y la familia de Carlota son latifundistas. Estas dos modalidades estructuran el discurso de la modernidad en Sab. ¿Cómo y por qué?
Wednesday, October 26, 2011
Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda (1814-1873)
(Pintor desconocido, dominio público)
1ª Parte entrevista Edith Checa 2009
Para glosar
"Al partir" (1836)
¡Perla del mar! ¡Estrella de Occidente!
¡Hermosa Cuba! Tu brillante cielo
la noche cubre con su opaco velo
como cubre el dolor mi triste frente.
¡Voy a partir!...La chusma diligente
para arrancarme del nativo suelo
las velas iza, y pronto a su desvelo
la brisa acude de tu zona ardiente.
¡Adiós, patria feliz, edén querido!
¡Doquier que el hado en su furor me impela,
tu dulce nombre halagará mi oído!
¡Adiós¡... Ya cruje la turgente vela…
El ancla se alza... el buque, estremecido,
las olas corta y silenciosa vuela!
Repaso:
Tuesday, October 25, 2011
Situando "El Matadero" de Esteban Echeverría (e. 1838-40; p.1871 Revista del Río de la Plata)
La cuaresma en "El Matadero"
La cuaresma comienza oficialmente el miércoles de ceniza y termina antes de la misa de la cena del Señor el jueves santo (generalmente cae entre marzo o abril). Son 40 días de preparación para la Pascua. La duración de cuarenta días proviene de varias referencias bíblicas y simboliza la prueba de Jesús al vivir durante 40 días en el desierto previos a su muerte y resurrección. También simbolizan los 40 días que duró el diluvio, además de los 40 años de la marcha del pueblo Judío por el desierto y los 400 años que duró la estancia de los judíos en Egipto. A lo largo de este tiempo, los fieles católicos son llamados a reforzar su fe mediante diversos actos de penitencia y reflexión. La Cuaresma tiene cinco (5) domingos más el domingo de resurrección (seis en total), en cuyas lecturas los temas de la conversión, el pecado, la penitencia y el perdón, son dominantes. No es un tiempo triste, sino más bien meditativo y recogido. Es, por excelencia, el tiempo de conversión y penitencia del año litúrgico. Por eso, en la misa católica no se canta el “Gloria” al final del acto penitencial (excepto el jueves santo, en la misa de la cena del Señor), ni el “Aleluya” antes del evangelio. El color litúrgico asociado a este período es el púrpura, asociado al duelo, la penitencia y el sacrificio.
Según Leonor Fleming, ¿cómo se manifiesta el tema de la civilización y barbarie en "El Matadero"?
¿Cómo se caracterizan los personajes en "El Matadero" y que representan?
¿Qué representan los siguientes personajes? (Dé ejemplos.)
Matasiete
el unitario
el juez
el niño degollado
el Restaurador
¿Cómo se manifiesta el tono anticlerical y por qué?
¿Según la presentación grupal, ¿en qué consiste "la crisis de la masculinidad" en "El Matadero"?
La cuaresma comienza oficialmente el miércoles de ceniza y termina antes de la misa de la cena del Señor el jueves santo (generalmente cae entre marzo o abril). Son 40 días de preparación para la Pascua. La duración de cuarenta días proviene de varias referencias bíblicas y simboliza la prueba de Jesús al vivir durante 40 días en el desierto previos a su muerte y resurrección. También simbolizan los 40 días que duró el diluvio, además de los 40 años de la marcha del pueblo Judío por el desierto y los 400 años que duró la estancia de los judíos en Egipto. A lo largo de este tiempo, los fieles católicos son llamados a reforzar su fe mediante diversos actos de penitencia y reflexión. La Cuaresma tiene cinco (5) domingos más el domingo de resurrección (seis en total), en cuyas lecturas los temas de la conversión, el pecado, la penitencia y el perdón, son dominantes. No es un tiempo triste, sino más bien meditativo y recogido. Es, por excelencia, el tiempo de conversión y penitencia del año litúrgico. Por eso, en la misa católica no se canta el “Gloria” al final del acto penitencial (excepto el jueves santo, en la misa de la cena del Señor), ni el “Aleluya” antes del evangelio. El color litúrgico asociado a este período es el púrpura, asociado al duelo, la penitencia y el sacrificio.
Según Leonor Fleming, ¿cómo se manifiesta el tema de la civilización y barbarie en "El Matadero"?
¿Cómo se caracterizan los personajes en "El Matadero" y que representan?
¿Qué representan los siguientes personajes? (Dé ejemplos.)
Matasiete
el unitario
el juez
el niño degollado
el Restaurador
¿Cómo se manifiesta el tono anticlerical y por qué?
¿Según la presentación grupal, ¿en qué consiste "la crisis de la masculinidad" en "El Matadero"?
Tuesday, October 18, 2011
Del Siglo de las Luces al Romanticimo
Siglo XVII: la era de la Razón
La Ilustración fue un movimiento cultural europeo que se desarrolló –especialmente en Francia e Inglaterra– desde principios del siglo XVIII hasta el inicio de la Revolución francesa, aunque en algunos países se prolongó durante los primeros años del siglo XIX. Fue denominado así por su declarada finalidad de disipar las tinieblas de la humanidad mediante "las luces de la razón". El siglo XVIII es conocido, por este motivo, como el Siglo de las Luces.
Los pensadores de la Ilustración sostenían que la razón humana podía combatir la ignorancia, la superstición y la tiranía, y construir un mundo mejor. La Ilustración tuvo una gran influencia en aspectos económicos, políticos y sociales de la época. La expresión estética de este movimiento intelectual se denominará Neoclasicismo.
La Ilustración en Hispanoamérica
A Hispanoamérica llegan las ideas de ilustración a través de la metrópoli.
En los ámbitos de la política y la economía, las reformas impulsadas por el despotismo ilustrado a finales del reinado de Fernando VI y durante el de su sucesor Carlos III tenían por objeto reafirmar el dominio efectivo del gobierno de Madrid sobre la sociedad colonial y contener o frenar el ascenso de las elites criollas.
Las autoridades españolas procedían a una explotación más sistemática y profunda de las colonias. Procuraban, además, fortalecer y aumentar la marina de guerra y establecer unidades del ejército regular español en las diversas regiones de América.
En Nueva España (México), en el ámbito de los colegios de la Compañía de Jesús, vemos surgir un importante grupo de científicos y filósofos ilustrados, encabezados por José Rafael Campoy (1723-1777), que defienden una clara separación entre la filosofía y las ciencias naturales, una mayor especialización en el estudio científico y una simplificación en el método de la enseñanza filosófica, evitando las sutilezas silogísticas, así como la sumisión incondicional a las autoridades. En este grupo de pensadores que trabaja principalmente en la ciudad de México, Tepotzotlán, Guadalajara y Valladolid (Morelia), destacan el historiador Francisco Javier Clavijero (1731-1787), que emplea un método histórico sistemático y sorprendentemente moderno, y el filósofo Andrés de Guevara y Basoazábal (1748-1801), que se basa en Francis Bacon, Descartes y los sensistas para plantear la necesidad de una filosofía moderna, justificar el método inductivo y experimental, y denunciar el abuso del método deductivo.
Romanticismo: Temas y Corrientes Intelectuales
Caspar David Friedrich, "Viajero frente al mar de niebla" (1818)
III. Esteban Echeverría (1805-51), La Cautiva (1837) y El Matadero (escrito en 1838, publicado en 1871)
La Cautiva (1837)
Un grupo de indígenas irrumpe en una población fronteriza de blancos y toma cautiva a María, más tarde su esposo Brian, al intentar rescatarla sufre la misma suerte que la mujer. Los indígenas festejan la victoria con un gran festín y la mujer -puñal en mano- aprovecha la confusión para liberar a su esposo malherido. Ambos buscan refugio en el desierto, en tanto que las tropas cristianas llegan hasta la toldería pero no encuentran a su jefe. La pareja comienza entonces una penosa huida en la que deben soportar la sed que los abrasa, la presencia de un tigre y la quemazón de unos pajonales que los rodean. Brian no resiste la aventura y muere. María sepulta a su esposo y continúa su camino con una sola esperanza: encontrar a su hijo. La mujer es hallada, finalmente, por un grupo de soldados que le informan la muerte del niño, degollado por los salvajes. Frente a esta noticia, María fallece. La llanura pampeana encierra en su seno las tumbas de los esposos.
Ángel Della Valle", La vuelta del malón" (1892)
Una mujer argentina siendo raptada por un malón para convertirla en "cautiva".
La Ilustración fue un movimiento cultural europeo que se desarrolló –especialmente en Francia e Inglaterra– desde principios del siglo XVIII hasta el inicio de la Revolución francesa, aunque en algunos países se prolongó durante los primeros años del siglo XIX. Fue denominado así por su declarada finalidad de disipar las tinieblas de la humanidad mediante "las luces de la razón". El siglo XVIII es conocido, por este motivo, como el Siglo de las Luces.
Los pensadores de la Ilustración sostenían que la razón humana podía combatir la ignorancia, la superstición y la tiranía, y construir un mundo mejor. La Ilustración tuvo una gran influencia en aspectos económicos, políticos y sociales de la época. La expresión estética de este movimiento intelectual se denominará Neoclasicismo.
La Ilustración en Hispanoamérica
A Hispanoamérica llegan las ideas de ilustración a través de la metrópoli.
En los ámbitos de la política y la economía, las reformas impulsadas por el despotismo ilustrado a finales del reinado de Fernando VI y durante el de su sucesor Carlos III tenían por objeto reafirmar el dominio efectivo del gobierno de Madrid sobre la sociedad colonial y contener o frenar el ascenso de las elites criollas.
Las autoridades españolas procedían a una explotación más sistemática y profunda de las colonias. Procuraban, además, fortalecer y aumentar la marina de guerra y establecer unidades del ejército regular español en las diversas regiones de América.
En Nueva España (México), en el ámbito de los colegios de la Compañía de Jesús, vemos surgir un importante grupo de científicos y filósofos ilustrados, encabezados por José Rafael Campoy (1723-1777), que defienden una clara separación entre la filosofía y las ciencias naturales, una mayor especialización en el estudio científico y una simplificación en el método de la enseñanza filosófica, evitando las sutilezas silogísticas, así como la sumisión incondicional a las autoridades. En este grupo de pensadores que trabaja principalmente en la ciudad de México, Tepotzotlán, Guadalajara y Valladolid (Morelia), destacan el historiador Francisco Javier Clavijero (1731-1787), que emplea un método histórico sistemático y sorprendentemente moderno, y el filósofo Andrés de Guevara y Basoazábal (1748-1801), que se basa en Francis Bacon, Descartes y los sensistas para plantear la necesidad de una filosofía moderna, justificar el método inductivo y experimental, y denunciar el abuso del método deductivo.
Romanticismo: Temas y Corrientes Intelectuales
Caspar David Friedrich, "Viajero frente al mar de niebla" (1818)
III. Esteban Echeverría (1805-51), La Cautiva (1837) y El Matadero (escrito en 1838, publicado en 1871)
La Cautiva (1837)
Un grupo de indígenas irrumpe en una población fronteriza de blancos y toma cautiva a María, más tarde su esposo Brian, al intentar rescatarla sufre la misma suerte que la mujer. Los indígenas festejan la victoria con un gran festín y la mujer -puñal en mano- aprovecha la confusión para liberar a su esposo malherido. Ambos buscan refugio en el desierto, en tanto que las tropas cristianas llegan hasta la toldería pero no encuentran a su jefe. La pareja comienza entonces una penosa huida en la que deben soportar la sed que los abrasa, la presencia de un tigre y la quemazón de unos pajonales que los rodean. Brian no resiste la aventura y muere. María sepulta a su esposo y continúa su camino con una sola esperanza: encontrar a su hijo. La mujer es hallada, finalmente, por un grupo de soldados que le informan la muerte del niño, degollado por los salvajes. Frente a esta noticia, María fallece. La llanura pampeana encierra en su seno las tumbas de los esposos.
Ángel Della Valle", La vuelta del malón" (1892)
Una mujer argentina siendo raptada por un malón para convertirla en "cautiva".
Wednesday, October 12, 2011
La continuidades del Barroco Hispánico
I. Las riquezas del "Nuevo Mundo" transformaron las artes en occidente tanto cómo la práctica estética. ¿Cómo se inserta Kehinde Wiley (Los Ángeles, CA, b. 1977) en este discurso?
Compare las manifestaciones de la "perla irregular" en relación a la llamada "Afroamericanidad".
¿Qué conversación entabla Wiley con la continuidad del barroco hispánico al apropiarse de la forma y figura de Velázquez en su presente?
Velázquez, "El Conde Duque de Olivares" (Museo del Prado, 1634-35)
Kehinde Wiley, "Equestrian Portrait of the Count Duke Olivares", 2005 (108 x 108 in. /274.3 x 274.3 cm)
Para responder: ¿Cómo y por qué se apropia Kehinde Wiley de la estética del barroco hispánico, y de Velázquez en particular, en su "Euquestrian Portrait of the Count Duke Olivares (2005)?
II. La Ilustración (Lumières, en francés; Enlightenment, en inglés; Illuminismo, en italiano; Aufklärung, en alemán)
"El siglo de las luces" y sus manifestaciones en hispanoamérica (XVIII).
Racionalismo
"Buen Gusto"
Formalismo: absoluto respeto a las reglas y convenciones literarias (e.g., las unidades clásicas: de espacio, de tiempo y de acción)
Didacticismo ("Enseñar deleitando")
III. Romanticismo,Realismo y Naturalismo
Espíritu rebelde y nacionalista
Esteban Echeverría "El matadero" (escrito en 1839, publicado en 1871)
Compare las manifestaciones de la "perla irregular" en relación a la llamada "Afroamericanidad".
¿Qué conversación entabla Wiley con la continuidad del barroco hispánico al apropiarse de la forma y figura de Velázquez en su presente?
Velázquez, "El Conde Duque de Olivares" (Museo del Prado, 1634-35)
Kehinde Wiley, "Equestrian Portrait of the Count Duke Olivares", 2005 (108 x 108 in. /274.3 x 274.3 cm)
Para responder: ¿Cómo y por qué se apropia Kehinde Wiley de la estética del barroco hispánico, y de Velázquez en particular, en su "Euquestrian Portrait of the Count Duke Olivares (2005)?
II. La Ilustración (Lumières, en francés; Enlightenment, en inglés; Illuminismo, en italiano; Aufklärung, en alemán)
"El siglo de las luces" y sus manifestaciones en hispanoamérica (XVIII).
Racionalismo
"Buen Gusto"
Formalismo: absoluto respeto a las reglas y convenciones literarias (e.g., las unidades clásicas: de espacio, de tiempo y de acción)
Didacticismo ("Enseñar deleitando")
III. Romanticismo,Realismo y Naturalismo
Espíritu rebelde y nacionalista
Esteban Echeverría "El matadero" (escrito en 1839, publicado en 1871)
Tuesday, September 27, 2011
"Perla irregular": La joya falsa y el concepto del barroco
I. Cultura visual
Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), "Las Meninas" (1656). Corte de Felipe IV (1605-1665)
Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), "El éxtasis de Santa Teresa" (1647 - 1651)
II. El Barroco hispanoamericano
Bernardo de Balbuena (España, 1562? – 1627)
La grandeza mexicana (1604) y la cuestión del género: Epístola, poema, sexulidad
IV. Marginalia
Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), "Las Meninas" (1656). Corte de Felipe IV (1605-1665)
Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), "El éxtasis de Santa Teresa" (1647 - 1651)
II. El Barroco hispanoamericano
Bernardo de Balbuena (España, 1562? – 1627)
La grandeza mexicana (1604) y la cuestión del género: Epístola, poema, sexulidad
IV. Marginalia
Wednesday, September 21, 2011
Guamán Poma De Ayala y el español diaglósico
I. Guamán Poma De Ayala
II. Inca Garcialso de la Vega, "Tipos de hombre americano" (Libro IX, Cap. 31).
Repasar lectura
III. Pinturas de casta
IV. Marginalia
América hispana
II. Inca Garcialso de la Vega, "Tipos de hombre americano" (Libro IX, Cap. 31).
Repasar lectura
III. Pinturas de casta
IV. Marginalia
América hispana
Monday, September 19, 2011
Guamán Poma de Ayala: Resistencia y representación
I. Alegorías de la resistencia indígena en Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala (c. 1535-1616), El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno (c. 1585-1615 [1916/1936])
¿Qué función recobra la alegoría en estos dibujos de Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala?
A base de las lecturas, ¿quién es el destinatario explícito de El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
A base de las muestras escritas, ¿ cómo y por qué se mezcla el español con el quechua en El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
¿En qué consiste y cómo se caracteriza la representación de la resistencia anticolonial en El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
El privilegio de linaje en la cultura quechua/incaíca se preserva mediante la madre y su "pureza". ¿Qué muestran estos dibujos respecto al tema?
[Dibujo 203. El corregidor y su teniente hacen la ronda nocturna.]
503 [507]
EL COREG[ID]OR I P[ADR]E, TINIENte anda rrondando y mirando la güergüenza de las mugeres.
/ probincias /
COREGIMIENTO
868 [882]
DEFIENDE DEL ESPAÑOL A su hija su padre y su madre los pobres yndios.
/ soberbia y luxuria /
IN[DI]OS
II. Mestizaje: Pinturas de casta
III. Repaso de contexto histórico
¿Qué función recobra la alegoría en estos dibujos de Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala?
A base de las lecturas, ¿quién es el destinatario explícito de El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
A base de las muestras escritas, ¿ cómo y por qué se mezcla el español con el quechua en El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
¿En qué consiste y cómo se caracteriza la representación de la resistencia anticolonial en El primer nvueva corónica y bven govierno?
El privilegio de linaje en la cultura quechua/incaíca se preserva mediante la madre y su "pureza". ¿Qué muestran estos dibujos respecto al tema?
[Dibujo 203. El corregidor y su teniente hacen la ronda nocturna.]
503 [507]
EL COREG[ID]OR I P[ADR]E, TINIENte anda rrondando y mirando la güergüenza de las mugeres.
/ probincias /
COREGIMIENTO
868 [882]
DEFIENDE DEL ESPAÑOL A su hija su padre y su madre los pobres yndios.
/ soberbia y luxuria /
IN[DI]OS
II. Mestizaje: Pinturas de casta
III. Repaso de contexto histórico
Wednesday, September 14, 2011
El tratado de Madrid
Sublimus Deus 1537 (Bula papal proclamada por el Papa Pablo III en la cual la escalvitud de los indígenas es prohibida)
Querella de Valladolid entre Ginés de Sepúlveda y Bartolomé de Las Casas 1550
Bartolomé de Las Casas, La brevísima relación de la destrucción de Las Indias 1552
El tratado de Madrid: La esclavitud jurídica y la ley cristiana
Película The Mission, R. Joffe dir. (1986)
Robert De Niro--Rodrigo Mendoza
Jeremy Irons--Father Gabriel
Ray McAnally--Cardinal Altamirano
Aidan Quinn--Felipe Mendoza
Cherie Lunghi--Carlotta
Ronald Pickup--Hontar
Chuck Low--Cabeza
Liam Neeson--Fielding
Bercelio Moya--Indian Boy
Sigifredo Ismare--Witch Doctor
Asuncion Ontiveros--Indian Chief
Alejandrino Moya--Chief's Lieutenant
Daniel Berrigan--Sebastian
Rolf Gray--Young Jesuit
Álvaro Guerrero--Jesuit
Querella de Valladolid entre Ginés de Sepúlveda y Bartolomé de Las Casas 1550
Bartolomé de Las Casas, La brevísima relación de la destrucción de Las Indias 1552
El tratado de Madrid: La esclavitud jurídica y la ley cristiana
Película The Mission, R. Joffe dir. (1986)
Robert De Niro--Rodrigo Mendoza
Jeremy Irons--Father Gabriel
Ray McAnally--Cardinal Altamirano
Aidan Quinn--Felipe Mendoza
Cherie Lunghi--Carlotta
Ronald Pickup--Hontar
Chuck Low--Cabeza
Liam Neeson--Fielding
Bercelio Moya--Indian Boy
Sigifredo Ismare--Witch Doctor
Asuncion Ontiveros--Indian Chief
Alejandrino Moya--Chief's Lieutenant
Daniel Berrigan--Sebastian
Rolf Gray--Young Jesuit
Álvaro Guerrero--Jesuit
Tuesday, September 13, 2011
Bartolomé de Las Casas y "La leyenda negra"
Theodor de Bry (1528–1598), Narratio Regionum indicarum per Hispanos Quosdam devastatarum verissima (Frankfurt: 1598).
El Las Casas de De Bry
Wednesday, September 7, 2011
Hernán Cortés y Bernal Díaz del Castillo: Del "yo" protagónico a la colectividad del "nosotros"
(Guamán Poma, c. 1615/1616)I. La encomienda -- Como la disponibilidad de españoles para el trabajo físico en las colonias era escasa y además estaba afectada por el clima tropical, la organización económica y social, descansaba sobre la fuerza de trabajo indígena. Sin trabajadores, la tierra no tenía valor alguno, y el oro y la plata codiciados no se dejaban recoger si no era con fatiga.
Era derecho fundamental el de la cobranza del tributo indígena. Todo indígena varón que tuviera entre 18 y 50 años de edad, era considerado tributario, es decir estaba obligado a pagar un tributo al rey, en su condición de “vasallo libre” de la Corona de Castilla. Este tributo, era el que cedía el Rey al encomendero como merced otorgada a su labor en la Conquista.
La Encomienda consistía en “encomendar” un determinado grupo de indígenas a un español para laborar las tierras encomendadas. Al encomendero le correspndía instruir los indígenas en "la santa fé católica".
“A vos fulano, se os encomienda en el cacique mengano 50 o 100 indios
para que os sirvais de ellos en vuestras granjerías y minas
y enseñadles las cosas de nuestra santa fé católica.”
II. Cortés y Díaz del Castillo: análisis de estrategias narrativas
III. Historiografía/historia/discurso
Monday, September 5, 2011
Mitologías: El discurso de la sexualidad indígena
I. Américo Vespucio, de nuevo
Lorenzo de' Medici (1463–1503)
A base de las lecturas de Colón/Las Casas y nuestras discusiones, ¿cómo se entremezcla el "discurso de la conquista" con la "historia" de la misma en la siguiente carta de Vespucio?
LAIS 331: from Early Americas Digital Archive at the University of Maryland at College Park
Letters of Amerigo Vespucci
THE MEDICI LETTER. Letter on his Third Voyage from AMERIGO VESPUCCI to LORENZO PIETRO FRANCESCO DI MEDICI. *
[Addresses the same voyage that Vespucci chronicles in the third section of his letter to Soderini.]
March (or April) 1503.
[…]
As regards the people: we have found such a multitude in those countries that no one could enumerate them, as we read in the Apocalypse. They are people gentle and tractable, and all of both sexes go naked, not covering any part of their bodies, just as they came from their mothers' wombs, and so they go until their deaths. They have large, square-built bodies, and well proportioned. Their colour reddish, which I think is caused by their going naked and exposed to the sun. Their hair is plentiful and black. They are agile in walking, and of quick sight. They are of a free and good-looking expression of countenance, which they themselves destroy by boring the nostrils and lips, the nose and ears; nor must you believe that the borings are small, nor that they only have one, for I have seen those who had no less than seven borings in the face, each one the size of a plum. They stop up these perforations with blue stones, bits of marble, of crystal, or very fine alabaster, also with very white bones and other things artificially prepared according to their customs; which, if you could see, it would appear a strange and monstrous thing. One had in the nostrils and lips alone seven stones, of which some were half a palm in length. It will astonish you to hear that I considered that the weight of seven such stones was as much as sixteen ounces. In each ear they had three perforations bored, whence they had other stones and rings suspended. This custom is only for the men, as the women do not perforate their faces, but only their ears. Another custom among them is sufficiently shameful, and beyond all human credibility. Their women, being very libidinous, make the penis of their husbands swell to such a size as to appear deformed; and this is accomplished by a certain artifice, being the bite of some poisonous animal, and by reason of this many lose their virile organ and remain eunuchs.
They have no cloth, either of wool, flax, or cotton, because they have no need of it; nor have they any private property, everything being in common. They live amongst themselves without a king or ruler, each man being his own master, and having as many wives as they please. The children cohabit with the mothers, the brothers with the sisters, the male cousins with the female, and each one with the first he meets. They have no temples and no laws, nor are they idolaters. What more can I say! They live according to nature, and are more inclined to be Epicurean than Stoic. *
[*This statement implies that the inhabitants pursue pleasure rather than consider philosophical matters.]
They have no commerce among each other, and they wage war without art or order. The old men make the youths do what they please, and incite them to fights, in which they mutually kill with great cruelty. They slaughter those who are captured, and the victors eat the vanquished; for human flesh is an ordinary article of food among them.
You may be the more certain of this, because I have seen a man eat his children and wife; and I knew a man who was popularly credited to have eaten 300 human bodies. I was once in a certain city for twenty-seven days, where human flesh was hung up near the houses, in the same way as we expose butcher's meat. I say further that they were surprised that we did not eat our enemies, and use their flesh as food, for they say it is excellent. Their arms are bows and arrows, and when they go to war they cover no part of their bodies, being in this like beasts. We did all we could to persuade them to desist from their evil habits, and they promised us to leave off. The women, as I have said, go naked, and are very libidinous, yet their bodies are comely; but they are as wild as can be imagined.
They live for 150 years, and are rarely sick. If they are attacked by a disease they cure themselves with the roots of some herbs. These are the most noteworthy things I know about them.
[This letter was translated from the Italian into the Latin language by Jocundus. Although the identity of Jocundus is disputed among scholars, many agree that this most likely is the Veronese Dominican Fra Giovanni del Giocondo.]
II. Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)
¿Qué encontró Hernán Cortés?
Modelo de Tenochtitlan
Representación de Tenochtitlan
Mapa de Tenochtitlan
Lorenzo de' Medici (1463–1503)
A base de las lecturas de Colón/Las Casas y nuestras discusiones, ¿cómo se entremezcla el "discurso de la conquista" con la "historia" de la misma en la siguiente carta de Vespucio?
LAIS 331: from Early Americas Digital Archive at the University of Maryland at College Park
Letters of Amerigo Vespucci
THE MEDICI LETTER. Letter on his Third Voyage from AMERIGO VESPUCCI to LORENZO PIETRO FRANCESCO DI MEDICI. *
[Addresses the same voyage that Vespucci chronicles in the third section of his letter to Soderini.]
March (or April) 1503.
[…]
As regards the people: we have found such a multitude in those countries that no one could enumerate them, as we read in the Apocalypse. They are people gentle and tractable, and all of both sexes go naked, not covering any part of their bodies, just as they came from their mothers' wombs, and so they go until their deaths. They have large, square-built bodies, and well proportioned. Their colour reddish, which I think is caused by their going naked and exposed to the sun. Their hair is plentiful and black. They are agile in walking, and of quick sight. They are of a free and good-looking expression of countenance, which they themselves destroy by boring the nostrils and lips, the nose and ears; nor must you believe that the borings are small, nor that they only have one, for I have seen those who had no less than seven borings in the face, each one the size of a plum. They stop up these perforations with blue stones, bits of marble, of crystal, or very fine alabaster, also with very white bones and other things artificially prepared according to their customs; which, if you could see, it would appear a strange and monstrous thing. One had in the nostrils and lips alone seven stones, of which some were half a palm in length. It will astonish you to hear that I considered that the weight of seven such stones was as much as sixteen ounces. In each ear they had three perforations bored, whence they had other stones and rings suspended. This custom is only for the men, as the women do not perforate their faces, but only their ears. Another custom among them is sufficiently shameful, and beyond all human credibility. Their women, being very libidinous, make the penis of their husbands swell to such a size as to appear deformed; and this is accomplished by a certain artifice, being the bite of some poisonous animal, and by reason of this many lose their virile organ and remain eunuchs.
They have no cloth, either of wool, flax, or cotton, because they have no need of it; nor have they any private property, everything being in common. They live amongst themselves without a king or ruler, each man being his own master, and having as many wives as they please. The children cohabit with the mothers, the brothers with the sisters, the male cousins with the female, and each one with the first he meets. They have no temples and no laws, nor are they idolaters. What more can I say! They live according to nature, and are more inclined to be Epicurean than Stoic. *
[*This statement implies that the inhabitants pursue pleasure rather than consider philosophical matters.]
They have no commerce among each other, and they wage war without art or order. The old men make the youths do what they please, and incite them to fights, in which they mutually kill with great cruelty. They slaughter those who are captured, and the victors eat the vanquished; for human flesh is an ordinary article of food among them.
You may be the more certain of this, because I have seen a man eat his children and wife; and I knew a man who was popularly credited to have eaten 300 human bodies. I was once in a certain city for twenty-seven days, where human flesh was hung up near the houses, in the same way as we expose butcher's meat. I say further that they were surprised that we did not eat our enemies, and use their flesh as food, for they say it is excellent. Their arms are bows and arrows, and when they go to war they cover no part of their bodies, being in this like beasts. We did all we could to persuade them to desist from their evil habits, and they promised us to leave off. The women, as I have said, go naked, and are very libidinous, yet their bodies are comely; but they are as wild as can be imagined.
They live for 150 years, and are rarely sick. If they are attacked by a disease they cure themselves with the roots of some herbs. These are the most noteworthy things I know about them.
[This letter was translated from the Italian into the Latin language by Jocundus. Although the identity of Jocundus is disputed among scholars, many agree that this most likely is the Veronese Dominican Fra Giovanni del Giocondo.]
II. Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)
¿Qué encontró Hernán Cortés?
Modelo de Tenochtitlan
Representación de Tenochtitlan
Mapa de Tenochtitlan
Tuesday, August 30, 2011
Cristobal Colón (1451?-1506)
Antecedentes
Cardenal Pierre d'Ailly (1351-1420) y su Imago Mundi de 1410 [1483]
Cardenal Pierre d'Ailly (1351-1420) y su Imago Mundi de 1410 [1483]
Monday, August 29, 2011
Comentario de textos
Repaso de conceptos generales
Metodología:
Método TCI
Antes de aproximarnos a una interpretación adecuada de un texto literario o cultural es necesario identificar tres elementos básicos del mismo.
I. Texto
-Autor
-Fecha
-Datos de publicación (e.g., lugar, editorial, etc.)
-Género literario (poesía, narrativa, ensayo, y teatro): Se entiende por “género” un conjunto de constantes retóricas y semióticas que identifican y permiten clasificar los textos literarios. Los géneros literarios son los distintos grupos o categorías en que podemos clasificar las obras literarias atendiendo a su contenido.
-Rasgos estilísticos: Conjunto de recursos estilísticos como “tema”, “tono”, etc., que caracterizan a un texto.
II. Contexto
-¿Cuándo?: Época o período cultural (e.g., renacimiento, barroco, etc.)
-¿Por qué?: Propósito explícito tanto cómo implícito, etc.
-¿Cómo?: Medios de transmisión
III. Interpretación
-Significado: El conjunto del contenido del texto en relación a su entorno de producción.
Agrupaciones indígenas"
Aztecas (Náhuatl)
Maya (Quiché)
Inca (Quechua)
Metodología:
Método TCI
Antes de aproximarnos a una interpretación adecuada de un texto literario o cultural es necesario identificar tres elementos básicos del mismo.
I. Texto
-Autor
-Fecha
-Datos de publicación (e.g., lugar, editorial, etc.)
-Género literario (poesía, narrativa, ensayo, y teatro): Se entiende por “género” un conjunto de constantes retóricas y semióticas que identifican y permiten clasificar los textos literarios. Los géneros literarios son los distintos grupos o categorías en que podemos clasificar las obras literarias atendiendo a su contenido.
-Rasgos estilísticos: Conjunto de recursos estilísticos como “tema”, “tono”, etc., que caracterizan a un texto.
II. Contexto
-¿Cuándo?: Época o período cultural (e.g., renacimiento, barroco, etc.)
-¿Por qué?: Propósito explícito tanto cómo implícito, etc.
-¿Cómo?: Medios de transmisión
III. Interpretación
-Significado: El conjunto del contenido del texto en relación a su entorno de producción.
Agrupaciones indígenas"
Aztecas (Náhuatl)
Maya (Quiché)
Inca (Quechua)
Wednesday, August 24, 2011
Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
Lectura de Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Knopf, 2011)
Vocabulario
Pangea -- fue un supercontinente que habría existido en las eras Paleozoica y Mesozoica por la unión de todos los continentes actuales
Preguntas
¿Cúal es la importancia de Pangea según la lectura de Charles Mann?
¿Cúantos viajes hizo Colón?
¿Con la ayuda de quiéne/s y cómo?
¿Cuál era el propósito principal de Colón?
Describa La Isabela según la lectura de Mann.
¿Qué conflictos se establecieron entre los colonizadores y los Tainos en La Española?
Según Mann, ¿qué importancia tuvo el “fenómeno biológico” iniciado por Colón?
En la descripción de Mann, los Tainos carecen de especificidad (no tienen nombres propios) y carecen de una historia propia (sólo son “indios”). ¿Por qué?
A partir de la lectura y la entrevista, ¿cómo se entremezcla el “discurso” y la “historia” en los pronunciamientos de Mann?
Código Florentino/Florentine Codex, (1545-90), Bernardino de Sahagún
El intercambio colombino:
Vocabulario
Pangea -- fue un supercontinente que habría existido en las eras Paleozoica y Mesozoica por la unión de todos los continentes actuales
Preguntas
¿Cúal es la importancia de Pangea según la lectura de Charles Mann?
¿Cúantos viajes hizo Colón?
¿Con la ayuda de quiéne/s y cómo?
¿Cuál era el propósito principal de Colón?
Describa La Isabela según la lectura de Mann.
¿Qué conflictos se establecieron entre los colonizadores y los Tainos en La Española?
Según Mann, ¿qué importancia tuvo el “fenómeno biológico” iniciado por Colón?
En la descripción de Mann, los Tainos carecen de especificidad (no tienen nombres propios) y carecen de una historia propia (sólo son “indios”). ¿Por qué?
A partir de la lectura y la entrevista, ¿cómo se entremezcla el “discurso” y la “historia” en los pronunciamientos de Mann?
Código Florentino/Florentine Codex, (1545-90), Bernardino de Sahagún
El intercambio colombino:
Monday, August 22, 2011
Introducción
I. La feminización del "Nuevo Mundo": Colón y los saberes americanos
Encuentros
"América" (c. 1580) grabado de Theodor Galle representa a Américo Vespucio (1451-1512) "descubriendo" a América. (El grabado se basó en un dibujo de Jan van der Straet creado en c. 1575)
¿Cómo se compara el grabado de Galle con "La Creación de Adán" (c. 1511) de Miguel Ángel?
Génesis 1, 26-27: "Creó, pues, Dios al ser humano a imagen suya, a imagen de Dios le creó..."
Legados: Nina Sky y Daddy Yankee, "Oye mi Canto"
¿Cómo se explica la feminización del "Nuevo Mundo" hasta en nuestro propio presente?
II. Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Knof, 2011)
Escuchar entrevista
III. Selección de lectura
The Seams of Panagaea
Although it had just finished raining, the air was hot and close. Nobody else was in sight; the only sound other than those from insects and gulls was the staticky low crashing of Caribbean waves. Around me on the sparsely covered red soil was a scatter of rectangles laid out by lines of stones: the outlines of now- vanished buildings, revealed by archaeologists. Cement pathways, steaming faintly from the rain, ran between them. One of the buildings had more imposing walls than the others. The researchers had covered it with a new roof, the only structure they had chosen to protect from the rain. Standing like a sentry by its entrance was a hand- lettered sign: Casa Almirante, Admiral's House. It marked the first American residence of Christopher Columbus, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, the man whom generations of schoolchildren have learned to call the discoverer of the New World.
La Isabela, as this community was called, is situated on the north side of the great Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in what is now the Dominican Republic. It was the initial attempt by Europeans to make a permanent base in the Americas. (To be precise, La Isabela marked the beginning of consequential European settlement—Vikings had established a short-lived village in Newfoundland five centuries before.) The admiral laid out his new domain at the confluence of two small, fast- rushing rivers: a fortified center on the north bank, a satellite community of farms on the south bank. For his home, Columbus — Cristóbal Colón, to give him the name he answered to at the time — chose the best location in town: a rocky promontory in the northern settlement, right at the water's edge. His house was situated perfectly to catch the afternoon light.
Today La Isabela is almost forgotten. Sometimes a similar fate appears to threaten its founder. Colón is by no means absent from history textbooks, of course, but in them he seems ever less admirable and important. He was a cruel, deluded man, today's critics say, who stumbled upon the Caribbean by luck. An agent of imperialism, he was in every way a calamity for the Americas' first inhabitants. Yet a different but equally contemporary perspective suggests that we should continue to take notice of the admiral. Of all the members of humankind who have ever walked the earth, he alone inaugurated a new era in the history of life.
The king and queen of Spain, Fernando (Ferdinand) II and Isabel I, backed Colón's first voyage grudgingly. Transoceanic travel in those days was heart-toppingly expensive and risky — the equivalent, perhaps, of spaceshuttle flights today. Despite relentless pestering, Colón was able to talk the monarchs into supporting his scheme only by threatening to take the project to France. He was riding to the frontier, a friend wrote later, when the queen "sent a court bailiff posthaste" to fetch him back. The story is probably exaggerated. Still, it is clear that the sovereigns' reservations drove the admiral to whittle down his expedition, if not his ambitions, to a minimum: three small ships (the biggest may have been less than sixty feet long), a combined crew of about ninety. Colón himself had to contribute a quarter of the budget, according to a collaborator, probably by borrowing it from Italian merchants.
Everything changed with his triumphant return in March of 1493, bearing golden ornaments, brilliantly colored parrots, and as many as ten captive Indians. The king and queen, now enthusiastic, dispatched Colón just six months later on a second, vastly larger expedition: seventeen ships, a combined crew of perhaps fifteen hundred, among them a dozen or more priests charged with bringing the faith to these new lands. Because the admiral believed he had found a route to Asia, he was sure that China and Japan — and all their opulent goods — were only a short journey beyond. The goal of this second expedition was to create a permanent bastion for Spain in the heart of Asia, a headquarters for further exploration and trade.
The new colony, predicted one of its founders, "will be widely renowned for its many inhabitants, its elaborate buildings, and its magnificent walls." Instead La Isabela was a catastrophe, abandoned barely five years after its creation. Over time its structures vanished, their very stones stripped to build other, more successful towns. When a U.S.–Venezuelan archaeological team began excavating the site in the late 1980s, the inhabitants of La Isabela were so few that the scientists were able to move the entire settlement to a nearby hillside. Today it has a couple of roadside fish restaurants, a single, failing hotel, and a little-visited museum. On the edge of town, a church, built in 1994 but already showing signs of age, commemorates the first Catholic Mass celebrated in the Americas. Watching the waves from the admiral's ruined home, I could easily imagine disappointed tourists thinking that the colony had left nothing meaningful behind— that there was no reason, aside from the pretty beach, for anyone to pay attention to La Isabela. But that would be a mistake.
Babies born on the day the admiral founded La Isabela — January 2, 1494 — came into a world in which direct trade and communication between western Europe and East Asia were largely blocked by the Islamic nations between (and their partners in Venice and Genoa), sub- Saharan Africa had little contact with Europe and next to none with South and East Asia, and the Eastern and Western hemispheres were almost entirely ignorant of each other's very existence. By the time those babies had grandchildren, slaves from Africa mined silver in the Americas for sale to China; Spanish merchants waited impatiently for the latest shipments of Asian silk and porcelain from Mexico; and Dutch sailors traded cowry shells from the Maldive Islands, in the Indian Ocean, for human beings in Angola, on the coast of the Atlantic. Tobacco from the Caribbean ensorcelled the wealthy and powerful in Madrid, Madras, Mecca, and Manila. Group smoke-ins by violent young men in Edo (Tokyo) would soon lead to the formation of two rival gangs, the Bramble Club and the Leather- breeches Club. The shogun jailed seventy of their members, then banned smoking.
Long-distance trade had occurred for more than a thousand years, much of it across the Indian Ocean. China had for centuries sent silk to the Mediterranean by the Silk Road, a route that was lengthy, dangerous, and, for those who survived, hugely profitable. But nothing like this worldwide exchange had existed before, still less sprung up so quickly, or functioned so continuously. No previous trade networks included both of the globe's two hemispheres; nor had they operated on a scale large enough to disrupt societies on opposite sides of the planet. By founding La Isabela, Colón initiated permanent European occupation in the Americas. And in so doing he began the era of globalization—the single, turbulent exchange of goods and services that today engulfs the entire habitable world.
Newspapers usually describe globalization in purely economic terms, but it is also a biological phenomenon; indeed, from a long-term perspective it may be primarily a biological phenomenon. Two hundred and fifty million years ago the world contained a single landmass known to scientists as Pangaea. Geological forces broke up this vast expanse, splitting Eurasia and the Americas. Over time the two divided halves of Pangaea developed wildly different suites of plants and animals. Before Colón a few venturesome land creatures had crossed the oceans and established themselves on the other side. Most were insects and birds, as one would expect, but the list also includes, surprisingly, a few farm species—bottle gourds, coconuts, sweet potatoes—the subject today of scholarly head-scratching. Otherwise, the world was sliced into separate ecological domains. Colón's signal accomplishment was, in the phrase of historian Alfred W. Crosby, to reknit the seams of Pangaea. After 1492 the world's ecosystems collided and mixed as European vessels carried thousands of species to new homes across the oceans. The Columbian Exchange, as Crosby called it, is the reason there are tomatoes in Italy, oranges in the United States, chocolates in Switzerland, and chili peppers in Thailand. To ecologists, the Columbian Exchange is arguably the most important event since the death of the dinosaurs.
Unsurprisingly, this vast biological upheaval had repercussions on human kind. Crosby argued that the Columbian Exchange underlies much of the history we learn in the classroom—it was like an invisible wave, sweeping along kings and queens, peasants and priests, all unknowing. The claim was controversial; indeed, Crosby's manuscript, rejected by every major academic publisher, ended up being published by such a tiny press that he once joked to me that his book had been distributed "by tossing it on the street, and hoping readers happened on it." But over the decades since he coined the term, a growing number of researchers have come to believe that the ecological paroxysm set off by Colón's voyages—as much as the economic convulsion he began—was one of the establishing events of the modern world.
On Christmas Day, 1492, Colón's first voyage came to an abrupt end when his flagship, the Santa María, ran aground off the northern coast of Hispaniola. Because his two remaining vessels, the Niña and Pinta, were too small to hold the entire crew, he was forced to leave thirty- eight men behind. Colón departed for Spain while those men were building an encampment— a scatter of makeshift huts surrounded by a crude palisade, adjacent to a larger native village. The encampment was called La Navidad (Christmas), after the day of its involuntary creation (its precise location is not known today). Hispaniola's native people have come to be known as the Taino. The conjoined Spanish-Taino settlement of La Navidad was the intended destination of Colón's second voyage. He arrived there in triumph, the head of a flotilla, his crewmen swarming the shrouds in their eagerness to see the new land, on November 28, 1493, eleven months after he had left his men behind.
He found only ruin; both settlements, Spanish and Taino, had been razed. "We saw everything burned and the clothing of Christians lying on the weeds," the ship's doctor wrote. Nearby Taino showed the visitors the bodies of eleven Spaniards, "covered by the vegetation that had grown over them." The Indians said that the sailors had angered their neighbors by raping some women and murdering some men. In the midst of the conflict a second Taino group had swooped down and overwhelmed both sides. After nine days of fruitless search for survivors Colón left to find a more promising spot for his base. Struggling against contrary winds, the fleet took almost a month to crawl a hundred miles east along the coast. On January 2, 1494, Colón arrived at the shallow bay where he would found La Isabela.
Almost immediately the colonists ran short of food and, worse, water. In a sign of his inadequacy as an administrator, the admiral had failed to inspect the water casks he had ordered; they, predictably, leaked. Ignoring all complaints of hunger and thirst, the admiral decreed that his men would clear and plant vegetable patches, erect a two- story fortress, and enclose the main, northern half of the new enclave within high stone walls. Inside the walls the Spaniards built perhaps two hundred houses, "small like the huts we use for bird hunting and roofed with weeds," one man complained.
Most of the new arrivals viewed these labors as a waste of time. Few actually wanted to set up shop in La Isabela, still less till its soil. Instead they regarded the colony as a temporary base camp for the quest for riches, especially gold. Colón himself was ambivalent. On the one hand, he was supposed to be governing a colony that was establishing a commercial entrepôt in the Americas. On the other hand, he was supposed to be at sea, continuing his search for China. The two roles conflicted, and Colón was never able to resolve the conflict.
On April 24 Colón sailed off to find China. Before leaving, he ordered his military commander, Pedro Margarit, to lead four hundred men into the rugged interior to seek Indian gold mines. After finding only trivial quantities of gold—and not much food—in the mountains, Margarit's charges, tattered and starving, came back to La Isabela, only to discover that the colony, too, had little to eat—those left behind, resentful, had refused to tend gardens. The irate Margarit hijacked three ships and fled to Spain, promising to brand the entire enterprise as a waste of time and money. Left behind with no food, the remaining colonists took to raiding Taino storehouses. Infuriated, the Indians struck back, setting off a chaotic war. This was the situation that confronted Colón when he returned to La Isabela five months after his departure, dreadfully sick and having failed to reach China.
A loose alliance of four Taino groups faced off against the Spaniards and one Taino group that had thrown its lot in with the foreigners. The Taino, who had no metal, could not withstand assaults with steel weapons. But they made the fight costly for the Spaniards. In an early form of chemical warfare, the Indians threw gourds stuffed with ashes and ground hot peppers at their attackers, unleashing clouds of choking, blinding smoke. Protective bandannas over their faces, they charged through the tear gas, killing Spaniards. The intent was to push out the foreigners—an unthinkable course to Colón, who had staked everything on the voyage. When the Spaniards counterattacked, the Taino retreated scorched- earth style, destroying their own homes and gardens in the belief, Colón wrote scornfully, "that hunger would drive us from the land." Neither side could win. The Taino alliance could not eject the Spaniards from Hispaniola. But the Spaniards were waging war on the people who provided their food supply; total victory would be a total disaster. They won skirmish after skirmish, killing countless natives. Meanwhile, starvation, sickness, and exhaustion filled the cemetery in La Isabela.
Humiliated by the calamity, the admiral set off for Spain on March 10, 1496, to beg the king and queen for more money and supplies. When he returned two years later— the third of what would become four voyages across the Atlantic—so little was left of La Isabela that he landed on the opposite side of the island, in Santo Domingo, a new settlement founded by his brother Bartolomé, whom he had left behind. Colón never again set foot in his first colony and it was almost forgotten.
Despite the brevity of its existence, La Isabela marked the beginning of an enormous change: the creation of the modern Caribbean landscape. Colón and his crew did not voyage alone. They were accompanied by a menagerie of insects, plants, mammals, and microorganisms. Beginning with La Isabela, European expeditions brought cattle, sheep, and horses, along with crops like sugarcane (originally from New Guinea), wheat (from the Middle East), bananas (from Africa), and coffee (also from Africa). Equally important, creatures the colonists knew nothing about hitchhiked along for the ride. Earthworms, mosquitoes, and cockroaches; honeybees, dandelions, and African grasses; rats of every description—all of them poured from the hulls of Colón's vessels and those that followed, rushing like eager tourists into lands that had never seen their like before.
Encuentros
"América" (c. 1580) grabado de Theodor Galle representa a Américo Vespucio (1451-1512) "descubriendo" a América. (El grabado se basó en un dibujo de Jan van der Straet creado en c. 1575)
¿Cómo se compara el grabado de Galle con "La Creación de Adán" (c. 1511) de Miguel Ángel?
Génesis 1, 26-27: "Creó, pues, Dios al ser humano a imagen suya, a imagen de Dios le creó..."
Legados: Nina Sky y Daddy Yankee, "Oye mi Canto"
¿Cómo se explica la feminización del "Nuevo Mundo" hasta en nuestro propio presente?
II. Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Knof, 2011)
Escuchar entrevista
III. Selección de lectura
The Seams of Panagaea
Although it had just finished raining, the air was hot and close. Nobody else was in sight; the only sound other than those from insects and gulls was the staticky low crashing of Caribbean waves. Around me on the sparsely covered red soil was a scatter of rectangles laid out by lines of stones: the outlines of now- vanished buildings, revealed by archaeologists. Cement pathways, steaming faintly from the rain, ran between them. One of the buildings had more imposing walls than the others. The researchers had covered it with a new roof, the only structure they had chosen to protect from the rain. Standing like a sentry by its entrance was a hand- lettered sign: Casa Almirante, Admiral's House. It marked the first American residence of Christopher Columbus, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, the man whom generations of schoolchildren have learned to call the discoverer of the New World.
La Isabela, as this community was called, is situated on the north side of the great Caribbean island of Hispaniola, in what is now the Dominican Republic. It was the initial attempt by Europeans to make a permanent base in the Americas. (To be precise, La Isabela marked the beginning of consequential European settlement—Vikings had established a short-lived village in Newfoundland five centuries before.) The admiral laid out his new domain at the confluence of two small, fast- rushing rivers: a fortified center on the north bank, a satellite community of farms on the south bank. For his home, Columbus — Cristóbal Colón, to give him the name he answered to at the time — chose the best location in town: a rocky promontory in the northern settlement, right at the water's edge. His house was situated perfectly to catch the afternoon light.
Today La Isabela is almost forgotten. Sometimes a similar fate appears to threaten its founder. Colón is by no means absent from history textbooks, of course, but in them he seems ever less admirable and important. He was a cruel, deluded man, today's critics say, who stumbled upon the Caribbean by luck. An agent of imperialism, he was in every way a calamity for the Americas' first inhabitants. Yet a different but equally contemporary perspective suggests that we should continue to take notice of the admiral. Of all the members of humankind who have ever walked the earth, he alone inaugurated a new era in the history of life.
The king and queen of Spain, Fernando (Ferdinand) II and Isabel I, backed Colón's first voyage grudgingly. Transoceanic travel in those days was heart-toppingly expensive and risky — the equivalent, perhaps, of spaceshuttle flights today. Despite relentless pestering, Colón was able to talk the monarchs into supporting his scheme only by threatening to take the project to France. He was riding to the frontier, a friend wrote later, when the queen "sent a court bailiff posthaste" to fetch him back. The story is probably exaggerated. Still, it is clear that the sovereigns' reservations drove the admiral to whittle down his expedition, if not his ambitions, to a minimum: three small ships (the biggest may have been less than sixty feet long), a combined crew of about ninety. Colón himself had to contribute a quarter of the budget, according to a collaborator, probably by borrowing it from Italian merchants.
Everything changed with his triumphant return in March of 1493, bearing golden ornaments, brilliantly colored parrots, and as many as ten captive Indians. The king and queen, now enthusiastic, dispatched Colón just six months later on a second, vastly larger expedition: seventeen ships, a combined crew of perhaps fifteen hundred, among them a dozen or more priests charged with bringing the faith to these new lands. Because the admiral believed he had found a route to Asia, he was sure that China and Japan — and all their opulent goods — were only a short journey beyond. The goal of this second expedition was to create a permanent bastion for Spain in the heart of Asia, a headquarters for further exploration and trade.
The new colony, predicted one of its founders, "will be widely renowned for its many inhabitants, its elaborate buildings, and its magnificent walls." Instead La Isabela was a catastrophe, abandoned barely five years after its creation. Over time its structures vanished, their very stones stripped to build other, more successful towns. When a U.S.–Venezuelan archaeological team began excavating the site in the late 1980s, the inhabitants of La Isabela were so few that the scientists were able to move the entire settlement to a nearby hillside. Today it has a couple of roadside fish restaurants, a single, failing hotel, and a little-visited museum. On the edge of town, a church, built in 1994 but already showing signs of age, commemorates the first Catholic Mass celebrated in the Americas. Watching the waves from the admiral's ruined home, I could easily imagine disappointed tourists thinking that the colony had left nothing meaningful behind— that there was no reason, aside from the pretty beach, for anyone to pay attention to La Isabela. But that would be a mistake.
Babies born on the day the admiral founded La Isabela — January 2, 1494 — came into a world in which direct trade and communication between western Europe and East Asia were largely blocked by the Islamic nations between (and their partners in Venice and Genoa), sub- Saharan Africa had little contact with Europe and next to none with South and East Asia, and the Eastern and Western hemispheres were almost entirely ignorant of each other's very existence. By the time those babies had grandchildren, slaves from Africa mined silver in the Americas for sale to China; Spanish merchants waited impatiently for the latest shipments of Asian silk and porcelain from Mexico; and Dutch sailors traded cowry shells from the Maldive Islands, in the Indian Ocean, for human beings in Angola, on the coast of the Atlantic. Tobacco from the Caribbean ensorcelled the wealthy and powerful in Madrid, Madras, Mecca, and Manila. Group smoke-ins by violent young men in Edo (Tokyo) would soon lead to the formation of two rival gangs, the Bramble Club and the Leather- breeches Club. The shogun jailed seventy of their members, then banned smoking.
Long-distance trade had occurred for more than a thousand years, much of it across the Indian Ocean. China had for centuries sent silk to the Mediterranean by the Silk Road, a route that was lengthy, dangerous, and, for those who survived, hugely profitable. But nothing like this worldwide exchange had existed before, still less sprung up so quickly, or functioned so continuously. No previous trade networks included both of the globe's two hemispheres; nor had they operated on a scale large enough to disrupt societies on opposite sides of the planet. By founding La Isabela, Colón initiated permanent European occupation in the Americas. And in so doing he began the era of globalization—the single, turbulent exchange of goods and services that today engulfs the entire habitable world.
Newspapers usually describe globalization in purely economic terms, but it is also a biological phenomenon; indeed, from a long-term perspective it may be primarily a biological phenomenon. Two hundred and fifty million years ago the world contained a single landmass known to scientists as Pangaea. Geological forces broke up this vast expanse, splitting Eurasia and the Americas. Over time the two divided halves of Pangaea developed wildly different suites of plants and animals. Before Colón a few venturesome land creatures had crossed the oceans and established themselves on the other side. Most were insects and birds, as one would expect, but the list also includes, surprisingly, a few farm species—bottle gourds, coconuts, sweet potatoes—the subject today of scholarly head-scratching. Otherwise, the world was sliced into separate ecological domains. Colón's signal accomplishment was, in the phrase of historian Alfred W. Crosby, to reknit the seams of Pangaea. After 1492 the world's ecosystems collided and mixed as European vessels carried thousands of species to new homes across the oceans. The Columbian Exchange, as Crosby called it, is the reason there are tomatoes in Italy, oranges in the United States, chocolates in Switzerland, and chili peppers in Thailand. To ecologists, the Columbian Exchange is arguably the most important event since the death of the dinosaurs.
Unsurprisingly, this vast biological upheaval had repercussions on human kind. Crosby argued that the Columbian Exchange underlies much of the history we learn in the classroom—it was like an invisible wave, sweeping along kings and queens, peasants and priests, all unknowing. The claim was controversial; indeed, Crosby's manuscript, rejected by every major academic publisher, ended up being published by such a tiny press that he once joked to me that his book had been distributed "by tossing it on the street, and hoping readers happened on it." But over the decades since he coined the term, a growing number of researchers have come to believe that the ecological paroxysm set off by Colón's voyages—as much as the economic convulsion he began—was one of the establishing events of the modern world.
On Christmas Day, 1492, Colón's first voyage came to an abrupt end when his flagship, the Santa María, ran aground off the northern coast of Hispaniola. Because his two remaining vessels, the Niña and Pinta, were too small to hold the entire crew, he was forced to leave thirty- eight men behind. Colón departed for Spain while those men were building an encampment— a scatter of makeshift huts surrounded by a crude palisade, adjacent to a larger native village. The encampment was called La Navidad (Christmas), after the day of its involuntary creation (its precise location is not known today). Hispaniola's native people have come to be known as the Taino. The conjoined Spanish-Taino settlement of La Navidad was the intended destination of Colón's second voyage. He arrived there in triumph, the head of a flotilla, his crewmen swarming the shrouds in their eagerness to see the new land, on November 28, 1493, eleven months after he had left his men behind.
He found only ruin; both settlements, Spanish and Taino, had been razed. "We saw everything burned and the clothing of Christians lying on the weeds," the ship's doctor wrote. Nearby Taino showed the visitors the bodies of eleven Spaniards, "covered by the vegetation that had grown over them." The Indians said that the sailors had angered their neighbors by raping some women and murdering some men. In the midst of the conflict a second Taino group had swooped down and overwhelmed both sides. After nine days of fruitless search for survivors Colón left to find a more promising spot for his base. Struggling against contrary winds, the fleet took almost a month to crawl a hundred miles east along the coast. On January 2, 1494, Colón arrived at the shallow bay where he would found La Isabela.
Almost immediately the colonists ran short of food and, worse, water. In a sign of his inadequacy as an administrator, the admiral had failed to inspect the water casks he had ordered; they, predictably, leaked. Ignoring all complaints of hunger and thirst, the admiral decreed that his men would clear and plant vegetable patches, erect a two- story fortress, and enclose the main, northern half of the new enclave within high stone walls. Inside the walls the Spaniards built perhaps two hundred houses, "small like the huts we use for bird hunting and roofed with weeds," one man complained.
Most of the new arrivals viewed these labors as a waste of time. Few actually wanted to set up shop in La Isabela, still less till its soil. Instead they regarded the colony as a temporary base camp for the quest for riches, especially gold. Colón himself was ambivalent. On the one hand, he was supposed to be governing a colony that was establishing a commercial entrepôt in the Americas. On the other hand, he was supposed to be at sea, continuing his search for China. The two roles conflicted, and Colón was never able to resolve the conflict.
On April 24 Colón sailed off to find China. Before leaving, he ordered his military commander, Pedro Margarit, to lead four hundred men into the rugged interior to seek Indian gold mines. After finding only trivial quantities of gold—and not much food—in the mountains, Margarit's charges, tattered and starving, came back to La Isabela, only to discover that the colony, too, had little to eat—those left behind, resentful, had refused to tend gardens. The irate Margarit hijacked three ships and fled to Spain, promising to brand the entire enterprise as a waste of time and money. Left behind with no food, the remaining colonists took to raiding Taino storehouses. Infuriated, the Indians struck back, setting off a chaotic war. This was the situation that confronted Colón when he returned to La Isabela five months after his departure, dreadfully sick and having failed to reach China.
A loose alliance of four Taino groups faced off against the Spaniards and one Taino group that had thrown its lot in with the foreigners. The Taino, who had no metal, could not withstand assaults with steel weapons. But they made the fight costly for the Spaniards. In an early form of chemical warfare, the Indians threw gourds stuffed with ashes and ground hot peppers at their attackers, unleashing clouds of choking, blinding smoke. Protective bandannas over their faces, they charged through the tear gas, killing Spaniards. The intent was to push out the foreigners—an unthinkable course to Colón, who had staked everything on the voyage. When the Spaniards counterattacked, the Taino retreated scorched- earth style, destroying their own homes and gardens in the belief, Colón wrote scornfully, "that hunger would drive us from the land." Neither side could win. The Taino alliance could not eject the Spaniards from Hispaniola. But the Spaniards were waging war on the people who provided their food supply; total victory would be a total disaster. They won skirmish after skirmish, killing countless natives. Meanwhile, starvation, sickness, and exhaustion filled the cemetery in La Isabela.
Humiliated by the calamity, the admiral set off for Spain on March 10, 1496, to beg the king and queen for more money and supplies. When he returned two years later— the third of what would become four voyages across the Atlantic—so little was left of La Isabela that he landed on the opposite side of the island, in Santo Domingo, a new settlement founded by his brother Bartolomé, whom he had left behind. Colón never again set foot in his first colony and it was almost forgotten.
Despite the brevity of its existence, La Isabela marked the beginning of an enormous change: the creation of the modern Caribbean landscape. Colón and his crew did not voyage alone. They were accompanied by a menagerie of insects, plants, mammals, and microorganisms. Beginning with La Isabela, European expeditions brought cattle, sheep, and horses, along with crops like sugarcane (originally from New Guinea), wheat (from the Middle East), bananas (from Africa), and coffee (also from Africa). Equally important, creatures the colonists knew nothing about hitchhiked along for the ride. Earthworms, mosquitoes, and cockroaches; honeybees, dandelions, and African grasses; rats of every description—all of them poured from the hulls of Colón's vessels and those that followed, rushing like eager tourists into lands that had never seen their like before.
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